History of the Atom Discovery

History of the Atom Discovery Mohammad Shahraan Khan  Phys Helen O’Keefe The secrets of atom Democritus was the first one to suggest that objects are made from something called atoms. Although Democritus was an ancient Greek philosopher, the word ‘atoms’ is from the Greek word atoma which means individual. Democritus was around from 460 – 370 BC and he further deduced that atoms are solid spheres and that they can’t be split anymore. Next, Aristotle who was also an ancient Greek philosopher, offered that items or objects were made from ‘Elements’. He said that the elements are either earth, wind, fire, and water and the properties to go with it for example dry, cold, hot, wet. Something could be made by joining elements together and could be converted into other things by adding other elements. Aristotle’s atomic theory was to show that anything made with fire could be either hot or dry or if anything was made with earth, this could be either dry or cold. At that time arguments were established by thought, reason and debate, there were no experiments as experiments were thought to be vulgar. Now as Aristotle was a wealthy man and was treated as a celebrity, his explanations were based on familiar experiences, he made conclusions based on what he saw for example snow and fire joined together makes water. Whereas Democritus was not as popular and nobody wanted to believe him as his theory was saying that atoms couldn’t be seen. Basically Aristotle’s theory was the basis of atoms all the way to the middle ages. In addition, Robert Boyle who was around from 1627 – 1691, studied gases and conferred the likelihood of atoms existing. He predicted that elements are made from something called ‘corpuscles’. He stated that atoms are organised in groups and that different groups are different chemical substances. It was around his time that experiments has started to come around. Moreover, Isaac Newton was another scientist who was around 1643 – 1727, he also studied gases. He is famous for being the one who discovered gravity. He proposed a mechanical universe where solid masses were in movement. Also that atoms/particles are not stationary. Furthermore, Antoine Lavoisier who was around 1627 – 1691 became known as the father of modern chemistry. He was an excellent experimentalist, and as such he assembled an accurate and precise balance to investigate oxidation. He demonstrated that when a substance is oxidised, the increase in its mass is equal to the mass lost by the surrounding air. He stated one of the most fundamental laws of science which is the mass conservation law and it states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed. Additionally, John Dalton was around from 1766 – 1844 and he suggested a theory of atoms, which are that elements consists of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms of the same element are alike whereas atoms of different elements vary in size, mass and other properties. Atoms cannot be divided, created or destroyed. Compounds (molecules) are made when different elements are joined together in whole-number ratios. In a chemical reaction, atoms are linked, separated or rearranged. Likewise, during the 19th Century, people were eager to find new elements and by 1860, 60 new elements had been discovered. Then a scientist called Dimitri Mendeleev who was around in the time of 1834 – 1907, had a concept of classifying the elements. He rearranged the elements in order of ascending atomic weight, he discovered consistent patterns and he invented a table to predict presence of numerous elements. The modern version of the periodic table organises elements according to an ‘atomic number’. An atomic number is number of protons added with number of neutrons. Changes that are given to the modern periodic table are the positions of some elements. Also then in 1857, Heinrich Geissler experiments on whether electricity can still travel, if the air was taken away. So when most of the air was sucked out, the tube still glowed. This attributed the small amount of air left in the tube. He discovered different gases generated different colours of light. People liked this a lot and so used them for entertainment for example neon lights. Energy saving lightbulbs are an example of gas discharge tubes. Then another scientist named Crookes who made a vacuum tube and he made a better vacuum tube than Heinrich Geissler as it sucks more air out. As a result there is no glow in the tube but on the glass at the end of the tub glowed green. There a cross was produced a shadow on the screen. For the vacuum tube, whatever moved the current, travels in a straight line. Crookes designed a lightweight wheel to see if the rays made it turn. The experiment method was to apply a voltage to the apparatus, the wheel moved away from the cathode but the light wouldn’t turn this wheel. Cathode rays must be some kind of small particle. J.J. Thomson who was around 1856 – 1940 wanted to see if the particles could be strayed by a magnet and also if another voltage was applied to the tube. He designed an even better vacuum than Crookes’ and Heinrich Geissler’s vacuum tubes. He observed that the rays bounced towards the positive plate. Particles are negatively charged. He hypothesised that these particles are part of the atom. â€Å"†¦ the atoms of the elements consist of a number of negatively electrified corpuscles enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive electrification, †¦Ã¢â‚¬  1^ and 1* [Thomson, 1904] This was compared to a British dessert at the time so it became known as the plum pudding model. Ernest Rutherford was around from 1871-1937, was accountable for discoveries in radioactivity and nuclear physics. He was a student of J.J. Thomson and wanted to determine the size of the atom. He fired positively charged particle at a thin gold foil. He anticipated positively charged particles would not deviate as they passed through the positive sphere. Rutherford actually observed that about 2 in every 7 positive particles deflected back. â€Å"It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.† Ernest Rutherford. 2^ and 2* [Rutherford, 1964] He discovered alpha and beta rays that pioneered the laws of radioactive decay, and acknowledged alpha particles as helium nuclei. This showed that there is something in the centre of the atom and it contains most of the atomic mass. Rutherford clarified his results by saying that atoms is ma de up of mainly empty space, they are small, dense and that there is a positive sphere at the centre known as the nucleus. The positively charged particles are redirected if they are close enough to the nucleus and also that electrons orbit the nucleus. There is a theory known as the electromagnetic theory which states that any charged particle in a circular orbit radiates electromagnetic energy. The electron loses energy as it orbits the nucleus. The radius of its orbit decreases as the energy decreases. The electron should spiral towards the nucleus. The electron should emit electromagnetic waves as it loses energy at a mixture of frequencies over a certain range. The radiation spectra were not continuous. The emission spectra couldn’t be resolved with the Rutherford model, no one really understood why the formula worked. Although a scientist named J.J. Balmer has studied the emission spectrum for several elements. Spectra for other elements could be predicted using the formula. A mathematical model could be made on observations from hydrogen. Neils Bohr who was around at the time of 1885 – 1962 came with a revolutionary proposal which states energy of an orbiting atom is quantized i.e. only particular types of energies are allowed. Energies must be multiple of a base unit, he also proposed that the electrons could jump between orbits. He was the one that pioneered the quantum theory. The Bohr model shows that electrons orbit in shells of definite energy. If an electron changes from a higher to a lower energy state, the change in energy is proportional to the frequency f of the emitted photon. The energy is given off as a photon of definite energy. This relates line spectra to atomic model. Energy is only released when electrons moves to a lower energy state. Photon represents the â€Å"spare energy†. Planck proposed light travels in discrete packets of energy which is quanta. Quanta is photons. Photons move at the speed of light and they have an associated frequency. For the electron to emit light, minimum energy is required. Quantum theory explains the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s equation E = mc2 relates matter and energy. In conclusion the atomic structure and the atom itself is so interesting to learn about and you could spend millenniums studying about it. It built the way to radioactivity, x ray treatment, matter and anti-matter particles even dark matter just with atoms. This pioneered nanotechnology and most of the stuff we see today. The theory of relativity could be related to this in a way because atoms were the cause of all these theories we see today. Richard Feynman who became one of the best-known scientists in the world remarks about the atom in this statement â€Å"If all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations of creatures, what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is the atomic hypothesis that all things are made of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. In that one sentence, you will see, there is an enormous amount of information about the world, if just a little imagination and thinking are applied†¦Ã¢â‚¬  3* and 3^ [Feynman, 1998] this quote demonstrates that how atoms are so interesting and so interesting that even in millennia people will be studying it. Bibliography 1* Thomson, J.J. (1904). On the Structure of the Atom: an Investigation of the Stability and Periods of Oscillation of a number of Corpuscles arranged at equal intervals around the Circumference of a Circle; with Application of the Results to the Theory of Atomic Structure (extract of paper). Philosophical Magazine, p.237 (British science journal) 2* Rutherford, E. (1964). Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom by E. N. da C. Andrade, p.111, and quoted in Nobel Laureates in chemistry (1901-1992) by Laylin K. James, p.57. 3* Feynman, R. (1998). Six Easy Pieces: Fundamentals of Physics Explained (Penguin Press Science, Paperback), p.4 References 1^ Plum Pudding Model. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 12th February 2015, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plum_pudding_model 2^ Ernest Rutherford. (n.d.). In Wikiquote. Retrieved 12th February 2015, from http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 3^ Richard Feynman. (n.d.). In The Information Philosopher. Retrieved 12th February 2015, from http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/feynman/ Word Count 1811

Why maths are rejected? by M. Moran

What is mathematics? Mathematics is a science, artistic expression of thought, a standard academic studying various concepts such as: space, structure, and change the amount; are a set of knowledge In progress, their objects of study are abstract and theoretical development is achieved through intuition, manipulating objects, and all forms of logical thought. What are we math? We used to be able to solve practical problems and daily life, understand the science, studying economics and an essential thing Is that it is very supportive and helps to develop the mind.In recent years, several teachers and educators have tried to fold an explanation to why mathematics has become one of the materials with the lowest averages in current societies. But not only are they concerned this problem, parents and guardians also Curious about this rejection and fear that children from an early age to show the numbers. Lately, parents have come to regard mathematics the main cause of school problems wit h their children, and have referred to them with the worst qualifying. Thus mathematics acquired a bad reputation for the home and children and grow with hat paradigm.One reason for the rejection of mathematics and the most important is the limited ability of some teachers to teach the subject; their teaching methodology Is not the best or correct; there are teachers who are not sufficiently trained to teach, especially In the primary which Is where the foundations of the art form; is how students they find it harder to understand a problem or solve a problem and qualify as â€Å"hard† or â€Å"boring†. Moreover, as the mathematical learning is cumulative, changing mathematics teachers each year during school or college stage an also be a problem, since the methodology of teaching is not the same in all teachers.Many people do not consider the Importance of this matter, as they fall to see or acknowledge you in all your daily activities make use of them, either conscio usly or unconsciously; that is why teachers should teach their students from the beginning the applications of mathematics in everyday life and for them to get to see them differently and achieve curiosity and interest in it. They can use them to note that in such simple activities Like starting a pizza or an Ice cream.Another major cause of this problem is that mathematics is a discipline that requires effort, concentration, dedication and patience; qualities that not everyone enjoys. So growing rejection, fear and hatred of math, because not all people are so disciplined in the art to be persevering in efforts to achieve and difficulty finding the desired result. Other causes of rejection are also stereotypes of teachers, and confuse or personality associated with the art teacher, If the teacher Is not to their liking them or saying that is difficult and even boring.A clear example of this problem the 10th world power with respect to mathematics, being the contributor 5% of articl es in scientific Journals in the world, but this has changed with the passing of the years living in Spain because certain mismatches have occurred over the years that have made new students from small will have little apathy to mathematics, among the highlights are: Training of teachers regarding the problem and motivation in the classroom. In this regard President SEEM (Spanish Society for Research in Mathematics Education) Bernard Gomez said that mathematics not only generate antipathy, but can provoke anxiety. Many teachers of the subject shows his annoyance about the academic to the decayed over the years but despite this level as Bernard Gomez, â€Å"There are great Spanish mathematicians. † But where is the problem? It is public knowledge that mathematics is considered one of the hardest if not the hardest materials, this causes very little enthusiasm in young people. The determinants of the lack of enthusiasm are lack of motivation, the teaching methodology of the stu dy program, the attitude that put the dents in learning and ‘climate' social adverse presenting this subject from parents towards their children.An example of this social problem is in the â€Å"avoid something I do not understand ask for fear of looking like a fool in front of my peers. † Besides this internal factor lies in what is itself the subject that is the complexity when reason and not Just read and try it once, deserves a longer effort because it should read several times to achieve a successful argument, as if they need a math problem on the proposed extended understanding and a little reflection, Just so you an achieve a successful resolution to exercise.We could see that there thinking skills that influence this paradigm aforementioned such as cognitive, affective and intentional skills are what create a negative atmosphere in most cases about the difficulty that can have mathematics through of their lives, this is due to a misconception that the person has in childhood as very young is not given good references to the child what is mathematics really like: â€Å"it's all about the math† . In this way we can help you make a concept car which is mathematics and the importance they will have in the future.It would help to eradicate this problem, you teach from small to having love, affection and respect to mathematics and its content is infinite but is one of the most beautiful and important sciences of the world. In my opinion, mathematics is rejected because since childhood listening to adults talk that mathematics is difficult, which is the subject to which you have to put more effort because of its difficulty; and somehow this leads to a mental block for some children and only a hard work of a master or willingly takes discard this paradigm hat many of the people who reject mathematics have been left out.

The Great Awakening

Great Awakening revived and reformed religion by creating a new intensely-emotional approach to Church teachings. New Light preachers added a much needed Jolt to this religious slump of boring and uninspiring sermons. They rivaled, and served as serious competition for the traditional â€Å"Old Light† teachers. However, was the Great Awakening a key contribution to the American Revolution? I can agree, but, the true answer Is Indecisive. Whether the â€Å"Awakening† did or did not influence independence in America, this new wave of religious freedom is with no doubt an important landmark in history.Despite disagreeing to this next opinion, the â€Å"supposedly† ineffective relationship between the Great Awakening and the revolution is supported with heavy content. According to some, this religious involvement was merely, as Jon Butler puts it, an â€Å"interpretative fiction†. This states that the Great Awakening was a meaningful symbol with no valid refer ence; it had â€Å"more talk, and less substance†. Butler also argues that historians took â€Å"revivals having little connection† and unified them Into one big affair.When merging with the world of politics, Church leaders failed to spread religion because of failure to defend It. They never supported the Awakening with â€Å"factional alignments† (historical evidence) and even failed to show strong â€Å"discontent with the Imperial relationship†. Some rebellious factions like Samuel Ward's and Stephen Hopkins in Rhode Island, and several New York resistance parties, were never linked to the Great Awakening. Defiance groups against Britain were already established without the help of a religious influence.The arguments that supported this â€Å"enlightenment† weren't convincing enough to influence such a revolt. Nevertheless, the Great Awakening inspired a new freely independent way of elisions and political thinking in British-America either wa y. Ezra Stiles was an American clergyman who worried about an imminent forthcoming of religious freedom In the colonies. This fear was an example of how such a religious movement could easily become a threat to the British. This freedom also institutes and Inspires an Ideology of liberty.Led by Jonathan Edwards, George Whitfield, and the Tenets, these â€Å"New Light† preachers emotionally Impacted the view of parishioners. Their explosive innovative interpretations of faith to God and their fiery sermons changed religion forever. James Davenport was known for preaching in the streets; gathering listeners to learn about a different approach to receive God's favor. Davenport â€Å"encouraged his followers to cast away their fine clothes† and other valuables to live their life based on God and not by material things.Because of the New Light's favor for education, many famous ivy-league colleges were created from it too. Their inspiration on social, political, and educati onal subjects marks the power of religious influence. It was a significant event that united the Americans to share something together as a group. This newly and largely formed congregation shaped how Americans viewed society and religion to what It Is today. Even with well supported Information, negative views towards the Great Awakening aren't as convincing as the power of God.Cods presence of higher authority gave Americans hope that the British aren't strong enough to rule over them forever. Traditional teachings of the now respected as a fair, merciful, powerful, and fair leader whom the people could look up to. What was also learned under God was that all men were created are equal. America uses this term as inspiration for their separation considering that it was mentioned in the â€Å"Declaration of Independence†. The equality of man and the justice of the Lord gave an opportunity for them to be free; free from English rule.As harmless as the â€Å"building of strong er faith† sounds, religion has the ability to inspire a revolution. The newfound feeling of pride for God and country was a strong impact to America. They couldn't let that go. They were starting to feel more like a country and â€Å"united† nation. It was impossible to Juggle between their newfound religious and social beliefs with Britain's already established religious and social beliefs. With the accomplishments of the Great Awakening, came the start of a separation that will change history. The Great Awakening Great Awakening revived and reformed religion by creating a new intensely-emotional approach to Church teachings. New Light preachers added a much needed Jolt to this religious slump of boring and uninspiring sermons. They rivaled, and served as serious competition for the traditional â€Å"Old Light† teachers. However, was the Great Awakening a key contribution to the American Revolution? I can agree, but, the true answer Is Indecisive. Whether the â€Å"Awakening† did or did not influence independence in America, this new wave of religious freedom is with no doubt an important landmark in history.Despite disagreeing to this next opinion, the â€Å"supposedly† ineffective relationship between the Great Awakening and the revolution is supported with heavy content. According to some, this religious involvement was merely, as Jon Butler puts it, an â€Å"interpretative fiction†. This states that the Great Awakening was a meaningful symbol with no valid refer ence; it had â€Å"more talk, and less substance†. Butler also argues that historians took â€Å"revivals having little connection† and unified them Into one big affair.When merging with the world of politics, Church leaders failed to spread religion because of failure to defend It. They never supported the Awakening with â€Å"factional alignments† (historical evidence) and even failed to show strong â€Å"discontent with the Imperial relationship†. Some rebellious factions like Samuel Ward's and Stephen Hopkins in Rhode Island, and several New York resistance parties, were never linked to the Great Awakening. Defiance groups against Britain were already established without the help of a religious influence.The arguments that supported this â€Å"enlightenment† weren't convincing enough to influence such a revolt. Nevertheless, the Great Awakening inspired a new freely independent way of elisions and political thinking in British-America either wa y. Ezra Stiles was an American clergyman who worried about an imminent forthcoming of religious freedom In the colonies. This fear was an example of how such a religious movement could easily become a threat to the British. This freedom also institutes and Inspires an Ideology of liberty.Led by Jonathan Edwards, George Whitfield, and the Tenets, these â€Å"New Light† preachers emotionally Impacted the view of parishioners. Their explosive innovative interpretations of faith to God and their fiery sermons changed religion forever. James Davenport was known for preaching in the streets; gathering listeners to learn about a different approach to receive God's favor. Davenport â€Å"encouraged his followers to cast away their fine clothes† and other valuables to live their life based on God and not by material things.Because of the New Light's favor for education, many famous ivy-league colleges were created from it too. Their inspiration on social, political, and educati onal subjects marks the power of religious influence. It was a significant event that united the Americans to share something together as a group. This newly and largely formed congregation shaped how Americans viewed society and religion to what It Is today. Even with well supported Information, negative views towards the Great Awakening aren't as convincing as the power of God.Cods presence of higher authority gave Americans hope that the British aren't strong enough to rule over them forever. Traditional teachings of the now respected as a fair, merciful, powerful, and fair leader whom the people could look up to. What was also learned under God was that all men were created are equal. America uses this term as inspiration for their separation considering that it was mentioned in the â€Å"Declaration of Independence†. The equality of man and the justice of the Lord gave an opportunity for them to be free; free from English rule.As harmless as the â€Å"building of strong er faith† sounds, religion has the ability to inspire a revolution. The newfound feeling of pride for God and country was a strong impact to America. They couldn't let that go. They were starting to feel more like a country and â€Å"united† nation. It was impossible to Juggle between their newfound religious and social beliefs with Britain's already established religious and social beliefs. With the accomplishments of the Great Awakening, came the start of a separation that will change history.

Women s And Disability Issues Within A Broad Socio...

Vera Chouinard is a professor in the School of Geography Earth Sciences at McMaster University. She has written on a variety of topics intersecting women’s and disability issues within a broad socio-cultural and geographic context (McMaster University website. 2015). Her topics include a critical feminist view of disabled women and issues such as legal rights, housing, employment, mental illness, social assistance, and health care (Academia.edu. 2015). In 2010, she also co-edited a book on disabled people’s perspectives on society and space (Ashgate. 2015). She also appears to be branching out with similar topics and how they are seen in the southern hemispheres. In her chapter on legal peripheries, Chouinard examines the social location in the context of legal rights as experienced by disabled people. In her discourse she identifies a social location where the lived experience of disabled contradicts their legal rights in Canadian law. She calls this social location legal peripheries as the lived experiences of disabled people lies on the outside of the center of Canadian society which enjoys the full power, privileges and benefits of such legal rights and protection. Canadians measure the accomplishments of a civil and accessible society by the laws that influence the perceived equality enjoyed by disabled Canadians such as the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom, provincial human rights laws, and the Accessibility for Ontarians with a Disability Act (AODA; inShow MoreRelatedGender Marginalization5547 Words   |  23 Pageshas a tremendous impact on development of human beings, as well as on society at large. As the objective of deve lopment is to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy a productive, healthy, and creative life, it is important to address the issue of marginalization. This unit deals, in detail, the various aspects of marginalization. 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